Fin fish aquaculture in coastal British Columbia waters

Sharon DeDominicis, RPBio

Sharon DeDominicis is the Environmental Sustainability Manager for Marine Harvest Canada, the largest salmon aquaculture company in British Columbia and the world. She has a
Bachelor of Science degree (Ecology) from the University of Calgary and has been a Registered Professional Biologist since 1991 (Province of Alberta, then British Columbia). Over her 25 year career she has authored more than 200 environmental impact assessments for a variety of resource sectors, focusing exclusively on aquaculture since 2001. In addition to managing provincial and federal regulatory compliance, she represents Marine Harvest Canada on several technical advisory boards, including the British Columbia Salmon
Farmers Technical Working Group and the Province of British Columbia Finfish Aquaculture Waste Control Regulation Advisory Group, and the Department of Fisheries and Oceans Monitoring, Inspection and Auditing Technical Committee. Scope of work includes active engagement with environmental groups such as the Coastal Alliance for Aquaculture Reform (CAAR), World Wildlife Fund and First Nation collaborative projects, and collaborative projects with academia and government researchers. Sharon has been the recipient of several awards including the Outstanding Woman of Honor – Aquaculture Sector (2007) from the Women of Resource Communities, and has been nominated for environmental manager of the year (Aquaculture Sector) in 2007 and 2008.

Question 1. What do you think are the key issues surrounding open water fin fish aquaculture (fish farming) on B.C.’s coast?

From the perspective of a professional biologist working in the fin-fish aquaculture sector, I see three overarching challenges for the sector: business related (meeting global demands
for the product), biological performance (stock health, environmental impacts), and public perception. Effectively reducing public concern related to environmental impacts associated with fish farming is critical for the success of the industry. Salmon farming needs to incorporate a variety of ideological perspectives to focus on environmental solutions, engage public interests and communicate well to secure its social license.

The global demand for finfish and shellfish is growing by about 9 percent a year (FOC 2009) applying considerable pressure to the world’s capture fisheries. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, by 2005 75% of the world’s capture fisheries were at – or near – their maximum harvest rates (http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0699e/A069 9E05.htm ). Aquaculture is an important part of the world’s food supply and by 2020 will likely provide quantities of fish comparable to wild fisheries. Canada, with the world’s
longest coastline, has a huge potential for aquaculture, yet in 2006 it ranked 23rd among world aquaculture producers and contributed less than 0.3% of the total global output (FOC
2009).

Modern salmon culture in the Pacific region includes stock enhancement, farming and ranching – tracing its origins to hatchery technology developed to mitigate stock impacts to Pacific Northwest riverine systems, from anthropogenic activities such as the construction of hydroelectric dams. This eventually evolved into enhancement and ranching programs that currently release more than 5 billion fry into the wild environment from Canada, Russia, Japan and the United States every year (Beamish et al. 1997). Many of these fish are later captured by commercial and recreational fishermen as ‘wild’ salmon. Up to 80 % of the juvenile coho salmon in southern BC coastal waters have been attributed to enhancement projects (Noakes et al. 2000). Commercial salmon farming shares the same genesis and much of the same technology; the main difference being, the stock is held captive throughout its life cycle.

From an animal husbandry perspective, raising stock in an uncontrolled environment such as marine areas requires extensive knowledge of the ocean and health requirements of the
species or stock. Over the past 30 years, considerable strides in understanding ocean hydrodynamics, marine chemistry, phytoplankton, salmonid pathogens (viral and bacterial), external parasites, marine engineering and infrastructure have been made. Fish health research has provided techniques for rapid disease diagnosis and treatment. Vaccines have been developed for the most common bacterial (and even for some viral) agents. Advances in adult salmon fish health management and nutrition along with success in maintaining healthy, disease free stocks of fish have been well documented in the animal science literature. Unfortunately, because this is such a specialized industry, substantive improvements in marine husbandry are not well understood and/or well known, particularly by the general public or by the salmon enhancement sector. Reducing stock mortality during occasional periods of critically low dissolved oxygen and/or during harmful algae blooms continues to be a principal challenge facing the Pacific coast industry.

It is appropriate for the public to hold any industry or sector accountable for any negative impacts to public resources used in the course of their operations – in this case ocean ater, the soils beneath the cages and wild fisheries resources. At the same time it is important these same citizen interests be made aware of the management actions taken to address these issues and the progress made towards mitigation/reduction/elimination of these concerns. The inability to effectively communicate technological and environmental gains has been a marked failure of the industry. For example the view presented by some sources and widely covered by the media holds that sea lice from farmed salmon are a significant factor in the disappearance of Fraser River sockeye salmon. Yet, even a superficial examination of the state of knowledge here reveals much information that questions this assertion. This includes: i) no research has yet demonstrated sea lice infestation to cause morbidity or mortality to juvenile sockeye salmon; ii) the weight of research findings into the impact of sea lice on wild pink salmon feared to be significant, even leading to extinction, have not found an effect at the population level (BC PSF 2009); iii) salmon farms can currently control the numbers of sea lice on their stocks to ensure that they remain at or below the ambient levels in the marine environment; and iv) the species of sea lice most commonly reported on juvenile sockeye (Caligus clemensi) is not specific to salmon and has a low abundance on farmed salmon. While this information may provide balance when reviewed and understood in its totality, the message most frequently offered by mainstream media is that of uncontrolled harm.

Question 2. Where do you think there is room for improvement in regards to fish farm management in coastal British Columbia by all sectors involved?

Industry success will be determined by its economic, social and environmental sustainability. Economic and environmental sustainability require regulatory certainty and consistency, science and innovation. Political stability is fundamental to build industry and public confidence. The British Columbian aquaculture industry is currently experiencing a change in regulatory authority following a British Columbia Supreme Court (BCSC) decision in February 2009 that ruled that the activity of aquaculture is a fishery which falls under exclusive federal jurisdiction pursuant to sub-section 91(12) of the Constitution Act, 1867 – Sea Coast and Inland Fisheries. In 2008, the federal government announced of a $70 million 5-year plan to support aquaculture innovation ($25 million), improve governance ($13 million), advance regulatory science ($22 million) and facilitate certification and market access ($10 million) (DFO October 2008).

Management of the sector is likely to improve with an expanded focus on collaboration amongst First Nations, environmental groups, governments, academics, industry, local communities and interested parties. Emergence of this approach to governance can be demonstrated in examples such as the Framework for Dialogue agreement struck between the Coastal Alliance for Aquaculture Reform (CAAR) and Marine Harvest Canada (MHC) in January 2006. The agreement provides opportunities for discussion around a number of matters of mutual interest including collaborative research on sea lice, sustainable technology innovation and public communication. Demonstrated value of the relationship is evidenced in the joint support of a Coordinated Area Management Plan (CAMP) for the Broughton Archipelago, where salmon production is coordinated to create fallow routes for juvenile wild salmon migrating from their natal streams. A key element of CAMP is the establishment of a collaborative monitoring/research program to ascertain the effectiveness/biological utility of the out migration corridors and related management activities.

Progressive industries recognize the value in investments in innovation. Although there are currently no viable commercial-scale closed containment systems for rearing salmon operating anywhere in the world, advances in technology may make closed containment systems viable in the future. We have completed a number of pilot projects here in British Columbia and continue to invest in joint ventures and studies to measure success and weigh all environmental factors. Two problem areas with current closed containment systems are the use of fossil fuels to maintain water temperature, growing conditions and associated fish health impacts. For a report analyzing more than 40 closed containment systems from around the world please see http://www.dfompo.gc.ca/csas/Csas/Publications/SARAS/2008/2008_001_e.htm

Question 3. Can you suggest specific measure or steps which can be taken to resolve this debate before another decade goes by?

Unfortunately, at present, the dialogue on the risks and benefits of farming fish is mired in polarized debate with positional language and accusations serving as the foundation for discussion rather than development of science-based discussions. Historical evidence suggests that it often takes decades for applied science to resolve issues, especially with regard to emerging industries and technologies. As information builds the debate continues on finer and finer areas of knowledge, and the initial hypotheses continually evolve and refine.

Growth of the Canadian aquaculture sector has been slow compared to other jurisdictions largely due to divergent opinions on the sustainability of the newly emerging agribusiness. The differing opinions arise in part from the newness of the industry along the coastline (where fish harvesting has been dominated by wild and enhanced stock capture) and also due to the lack of locally relevant science assessing the potential impacts of the industry. In 1984 there were 10 salmon farms operating on the British Columbia coast, by 1988 there were 101 salmon farming companies and 118 active farms (Peter Robson 2006). By 1992, about half of the companies had disappeared from the coast due to technical challenges growing the stock, financial instability, poor site selection and a drop in salmon prices in the marketplace. The rapid growth in the industry occurred in the absence of a coordinated regulatory system. Increasing public concerns about the effects of the industry on the marine environment and on other coastal users led to a provincially mandated moratorium on expansion in 1986 and again in 1995 while complex multi-stakeholder environmental assessments of the industry were completed (Gillespie Enquiry 1986, Salmon Aquaculture Review 1997).

There have been three science-based reviews of the industry: Gillespie Enquiry, SAR, and the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in 2001. The
over-arching conclusion was that the salmon farming industry, at the time of review, presented a low overall risk to the environment. Continued regulatory and public focus on aquaculture led to the broader based Legislative Assembly of British Columbia Special Committee on Sustainable Aquaculture (November 2005 to May 2007) and another sciencebased review conducted by the Pacific Salmon Forum (December 2004 to January 2009) http://www.pacificsalmonforum.ca

In response to continuing public uncertainty provincial and federal regulatory agencies have adopted a precautionary approach to managing the industry – while investing considerable resources into research projects to further the body of BC specific science. Research includes studies on sea lice, benthic monitoring, feed conversion ratios, fish health, and closed
containment systems. A list of studies can be found at http://www.salmonfarmers.org/studies_and_publications.php or on government websites (DFO, Ministry of Environment, MAL).

Management of the fish farm industry has been in a evolving since farms first appeared on the coast. The British Columbia salmon farming industry is subject to 52 separate provincial and federal statutes, regulations, policies and guidelines, as well as numerous municipal and regional district land use and development regulatory instruments. A regulatory comparison chart can be found at http://www.al.gov.bc.ca/fisheries/Finfish/cabinet/Summary_Table_BCWorld_Aqua_Regs.pdf

Since 2003 the industry has been monitoring and reporting sea lice information to government authorities as part of a broader program known as the Provincial Sea Lice Management Strategy. The results are publically available on the MAL website (http://www.al.gov.bc.ca/ahc/fish_health/sealice_monitoring_results.htm ) and at some company websites (example, http://www.marineharvestcanada.com ). In addition to regular monitoring, treatment trigger levels were established in 2003 which are comparable to other international jurisdictions. Serious health and growth performance issues associated with sea lice infestations have plagued the salmon farming industries in Europe and eastern North America. This has not been the case in either Japan or Canada’s west coast (Johnson et al. 2004). Heavy infestations resulting in mortality or damage to farmed Pacific or Atlantic salmon stocks from sea lice infections are rare in BC.

Over the past 7 years (2003-2010) our knowledge of sea lice biology (life history, distribution, abundances, tolerances) and the susceptibility and resistance of salmonids to lice has substantially improved. Significant findings relevant to the BC situation are listed below.
1. There are several different species of sea lice that infect salmonids in the marine waters of British Columbia, the two most common are Lepeophtheirus salmonis and Caligus clemensi. Most of the ‘sea lice debate’ focuses on the interactions between farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), juvenile Pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) and L. salmonis.
2. Recent studies have found significant genetic differences between Pacific and Atlantic L. salmonis, suggesting the two groups may be different species, which may explain the different clinical presentation of sea lice impacts in farmed salmon internationally (Todd et al 2004; Yazawa et al 2008).
3. Resistance to sea lice varies between salmon species. Studies report that when Pink salmon weighing less than 25g were exposed to > 200 L. salmonis/salmon about
50% became infected but there was no death or signs of sickness and within 3 weeks post infection most of the infected fish had shed the lice. By contrast, 100% of Atlantic salmon became infected, and died or were seriously sick within 12 days post infection when similarly infected (50g fish) (Ross et al 2000; Jones et al 2007; Wagner et al 2007; Jones et. al 2008).
4. Pink salmon appear to be highly resistant to sea lice infections. In fact, very little mortality was associated with laboratory studies on fish larger than 0.7g (Jones et al 2008b). It has been estimated that Pink salmon immunity to sea lice is fully developed by the time Pink salmon are less than 1.0 grams in size and appears to coincide with changes to the
skin, including the start of scale development (Jones et al 2008b).
5. Both laboratory and field studies have demonstrated the ability of Pink salmon to shed lice. One study found that this ability was not compromised even when salmon were held on reduced ration to the point that they were smaller and skinnier than the controls (Jones et al 2008a).
6. Recent research by Fisheries and Oceans Canada has shown that the proportion of wild Pink salmon juveniles at risk from sea lice declined from 4.5% to 0% between 2005 and 2009 in the Broughton Archipelago region. In the spring of 2008, there were no recorded lethal infections of L. salmonis on Pink salmon less than 0.7 grams in this region (lethal size thresholds based on published trials). In 2009, similar observations show that no Pink salmon less than 0.7 grams were at risk to L. salmonis.
7. When wild juvenile pinks were surveyed off the north coast of BC, (a region devoid of salmon farms) prevalence of all lice on the wild salmon was found to be over 13% (i.e. 13% of fish carried lice), and intensity averaged 1.2 lice/fish. C. clemensi were more predominant than L. salmonis (Gottesfeld et al. 2005). Similar results were found in wild juvenile pink salmon surveyed in the midcoast of BC, another region with a few salmon farms. In this region, prevalence and intensity were 18% and 2 lice per fish respectively (Butterworth et al. 2007). However in this study more L. salmonis than C. clemensi were observed.
8. Farming companies continue to refine management techniques in response to research results. Sea lice management (monitoring and treatment) is intensified during the critical outmigration period when wild salmon are at their smallest (March – May). There has been a steady decrease in farm sea lice numbers since 2007 in the Broughton (http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/ahc/fish_health/sealice_monitoring_results.htm ).
9. Management practices and production tonnage in the Broughton Archipelago have been relatively consistent from 2003-2009, yet pink salmon returns continue to be as variable as they have been historically (http://www.pac.dfompo.gc.ca/science/aquaculture/pinksalmon-saumonrose/resultsresultats/index-eng.htm ).
10. Peak pink salmon returns occurred in 2009 in the Broughton (and elsewhere along the coastline). Historical highs were also reported 1975, 1993 and 2001 in the archipelago. Conversely, historical lows were reported 1953, 1969, 1991 and 2002 (http://www-ops2.pac.dfompo.gc.ca/xnet/content/salmon/sc stad/bulletins.htm ).
11. Even with all the monitoring and management, the farms are administering very few treatments (normally no more than 1.5 treatments/crop cycle) (Dr. Sonja Saksida personal communication; http://www.marineharvestcanada.com )

Question 4. How would you suggest ways in which biology professionals can become better informed and involved in addressing fish farm issues?

Websites and blogs devoted to salmon farming issues tend to be either pro (example: company or farming association sites http://www.marineharvestcanada.com ) or con (example: http://www.farmedanddangerous.org) regarding the issues of concern and progress made to address concerns. Frequent reviews of these sources will make an interested biologist
aware of the current state of debate around salmon farming but may be repetitious with respect to narrow source material or may not provide the desired level of information
balance. The recent report by Pacific Salmon Forum with its appendix of research findings is a timely and concise reference http://www.pacificsalmonforum.ca. Of course, a good source of information can be colleagues working directly in the field.

Much of the BC environmental impact research has been conducted by biologists who are CAB members and enquiries made through the APB list serve may elicit private responses and communication with professionals who were directly involved in the field work and data analysis. Similarly many of those given the responsibility for monitoring the performance of this industry to the targets and thresholds established in regulations for environmental sustainability are CAB professionals.

Employment opportunities exist through various avenues including government, universities, advocacy groups and industry. Institutions and agencies involved with salmon aquaculture include but are not limited to: Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, University of British Columbia, University of Victoria, Vancouver Island University, Center for Aquatic Health Sciences (Campbell River) and the Pacific Salmon Foundation. Opportunities for upgrade training in salmon aquaculture are available through many post secondary teaching institutions.

Salmon farm tours are available each year from July to September through the BC Salmon Farmers Association http://www.salmonfarmers.org/tours.php

Formal Dialogues provide another opportunity for biology professionals and multiple stakeholders to work towards common goals and understanding. These dialogues also allow interested parties to contribute to global initiatives that are working to build a more accountable, and therefore stronger, salmon farming industry. Such is the case with salmon
aquaculture’s involvement with the World Wildlife Fund’s Salmon Aquaculture Dialogue (http://www.worldwildlife.org/what/globalmarkets/aquaculture/dialoguessalmon.html) and Global Aquaculture Alliance’s Global Aquaculture Standard.

Question 5. How do you envision fish farming being part of the future economic, environmental and social fabric of BC’s coast?

Farmed salmon is already British Columbia’s largest agricultural export, employing over 6,000 people in production and supply and services (Price Waterhouse Coopers 2008 report). http://proxy.baremetal.com/salmonfarmers.org/attachments/2008_IndustryProfile_PWC.pdf

Future developments will build upon the current 80,000 metric tonne annual production base and allow fish farming in British Columbia to achieve its full potential of contributing 150,000 to 200,000 tonnes to domestic and international markets. At this scale of production, BC would see benefit from the expansion of associated spin off industries such as net and cage manufacturing as well as boat building.

In British Columbia, net-pen based salmon farming has demonstrated that it can contribute as a desirable component of the modern coastal economy and form a cornerstone of survival for remote communities. The Kitasoo Xai’xais First Nations and Marine Harvest have celebrated a decade of cooperative success bringing significant benefit to the community of Klemtu and representing a positive model for other First Nations groups in coastal BC. The Quatsino and Kwakiutl First Nations have also experienced similar successes with salmon aquaculture.

Continued focus on problem solving through innovation will likely realize further reductions in the risks of stock mortality and improved environmental management. Similarly, advancements leading to reduced costs of operation will allow the advent of closed system aquaculture or full recirculation plants that will be located near sources of three phase electricity and likely closer to larger population centers.

Species diversification remains an area of strong interest in BC aquaculture with the potential for several high value species still in the experimental stages. Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (where more than 1 species is grown together) is currently emerging on the coast.

References:
Beamish, R.J., Mahnken, C., Neville, C.M. 1997. Hatchery and wild production of Pacific salmon in relation to large-scale natural shifts in the productivity of the marine
environment. ICES Journal of Marine Science 54: 1200-1215.

BC Pacific Salmon Forum. 2009. BC Pacific Salmon Forum Final Report & and Recommendations to the Government of British Columbia January 2009.

Butterworth,K.G., Cubitt, K.F., McKinley, R.S. 2007. The prevalence, density and impact of Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Kroyer) infestations on juvenile pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) from the central coast of British Columbia, Canada. Fisheries Research 91: 35-41.

Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 2009. Federal BC Aquaculture Regulation & Strategic Action Plan Initiative. Discussion Document. Prepared by Fisheries and Oceans Canada.
November 2009.

Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 2008. Sustainable Aquaculture Initiative. http://www.dfompo.gc.ca/aquaculture/sustainabledurable/sustainable-durable-eng.htm

Gottesfeld, A.S., Ryan T., Rolston D., Proctor B. 2005. Sea lice and Pink salmon smolts on the North Coast of British Columbia. Retrieved January 20, 2008 from
http://www.skeenafisheries.ca/Publication_04-05_salmon_& Sea_lice_report.pdf .

Johnson, S.C., Treasurer, J.W., Bravo, S., Nagasawa, K., Kabata, Z. 2004 A review of the impact of parasitic copepods on marine aquaculture. Zoological Studies 43: 299-243.

Jones, S.R.M, Fast, M.D., Johnson, S.C., Groman, D.B. 2007. Differential rejections of sea lice by pink and chum salmon: disease consequences and expression of
proinflammatory genes. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 75: 229-239.

Jones, S.R.M., Fast, M.D., Johnson, S.C. 2008. Influence of reduced feed ration on Lepeophtheirus salmonis infestation and inflammatory gene expression in juvenile
pink salmon. Journal of Aquatic Animal Health 20: 103-109.

Jones, S.R.M., Kim, E., Bennett, W. 2008b. Early development of resistance to the salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Koyer) in juvenile pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (Walbaum). Journal of Fish Diseases 31: 1365-2761.

Noakes, D.J., Beamish, R.J., Sweeting, R., King, J. 2000. Changing the balance: interactions between hatchery and wild Pacific coho salmon in the presence of regime shifts. North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission Bulletin 2: 155-164.

Peter A. Robson. 2006. Salmon Farming – The Whole Story. Heritage House Publishing Company Ltd. Surrey BC. 271pgs.

Ross, N.W., Firth K.J., Wang Al, Burka J.F., Johnson, S.C. 2000. Changes in hydrolytic enzyme activities of Naïve Atlantic salmon Salmo salar skin mucus due to infection with the salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis and cortisol implantation. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 41: 43-51.

Todd, C.D., Walker, A.M., Ritchie, M.G., Graves, J.A., Walker, A.F. 2004. Population genetic differentiation of sea lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) parasitic on Atlantic and Pacific salmonids: analysis of microsatellite DNA variation among wild and farmed hosts. Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 61: 1176-1190.

Wagner, G.N., Fast, M.D., Johnson, S.C. 2008. Physiology and immunology of Lepeophtheirus salmonis infections of salmonids. Trends in Parasitology Volume 24 No. 4.

Yazawa, R., Yasuike, M., Leong, J., vonSchalburg, K.R., Cooper, G.A., Beetz-Sargent, M., Robb, Al, Davidson, W.S., Jones, S.R.M., Koop, B.F. 2008. EST and Microchondrial DAN sequences support a distinct Pacific form of salmon louse, Lepeophtheirus salmonis. Marine Biotechnology 10: 741-749.

BioNews Vol 20, No. 1, pp. 14-19